While immune systems are well studied in mammals and birds, reptiles 鈥� particularly sea turtles 鈥� remain less explored, leaving critical gaps in scientific understanding.

New research published in helps address this gap by examining the major histocompatibility complex (MHC), a critical group of immune system genes that enables organisms to recognize and fight diseases.

The study, which examined four species 鈥� loggerheads, green turtles, Kemp鈥檚 ridleys and leatherbacks 鈥� found that most sea turtles maintain high levels of immune gene variation, likely inherited from a common ancestor. However, variation differs across species and different copies of these genes can function in distinct ways.

鈥淪ea turtles are an interesting case for studying immune system evolution,鈥� says Katherine Martin 鈥�24PhD, an integrative conservation biology alum and postdoctoral researcher at Oregon State University who led the study. 鈥淭丑别y live for a long time and encounter many different types of pathogens across multiple habitats.鈥�

How MHC and Genetic Variation Work Together

MHC plays a key role in identifying and flagging pathogens for destruction by the immune system.

鈥淢HC is essentially holding a small molecular flag that says to T cells, 鈥楾his is the invader that you need to seek and destroy鈥�,鈥� says Martin, who specializes in immune system genetics in sea turtles.

Because pathogens vary widely, immune defenses must also adapt, creating strong evolutionary pressure for variation in MHC genes.

鈥淔or each different pathogen, you need a different MHC protein,鈥� Martin says. 鈥淵ou can think of it kind of like a lock and key.鈥�

Martin adds that immune gene variation is critical for population health and studying this builds insight on how well a population might respond to disease.

Key Findings and Evolutionary Insights

The study revealed differences in genetic variation across species, with leatherbacks showing lower MHC diversity than others.

鈥淥ne of the things that can contribute to low genetic variation is low population size,鈥� Martin says. 鈥淲e think this might be the case with leatherbacks.鈥�

Another key finding was the presence of shared genetic variants across species, suggesting deep evolutionary roots.

鈥淭丑别 results indicate that shared ancestry is the most likely explanation,鈥� Martin says. 鈥淭hat likely underscores their importance and their function.鈥�

Martin also identified balancing selection as a key evolutionary force maintaining immune gene variation.

鈥淚nstead of selecting for a single trait, it鈥檚 the variation within that trait that鈥檚 advantageous,鈥� Martin says.

A Comparative Approach Across Species

鈥淭丑别 turtle species have different diets, habitats and disease prevalence, and [these samples] provided a useful comparison of the different ways of living that sea turtles have and how that might bear out in patterns of MHC variation.”

To establish a baseline for variations, Martin analyzed MHC genes from more than 300 turtles samples collected through and collaborators, highlighting the shared effort behind large-scale conservation research.

鈥淸The turtle species] have different diets, habitats and disease prevalence,鈥� Martin says. 鈥淸These samples] provided a useful comparison of the different ways of living that sea turtles have and how that might bear out in patterns of MHC variation.鈥�

Martin extracted DNA from samples across coastal nesting sites, lagoons and offshore waters. She then amplified target genes and sequenced them using next-generation DNA sequencing technology.

鈥淚n a single sequencing run, you can analyze multiple individuals all at once,鈥� Martin says. 鈥淲e also get high sequencing depth, meaning each bit of DNA is sequenced multiple times.鈥�

This approach improves accuracy, especially for highly variable genes like MHC.

Expanding Studies and Conservation Efforts

Martin plans to expand her research to additional sea turtle populations worldwide rather than just the northwest Atlantic, as well as to reptiles more broadly.

鈥淚 really love being able to ask questions about how that variation arises in the first place and what forces maintain it over time,鈥� Martin says.聽聽Understanding immune gene variation has direct applications for conservation strategies, particularly as sea turtles face increasing environmental pressures.

鈥淚f we protect the habitats these sea turtles rely on, we can bolster population sizes and, in turn, maintain genetic variation across all genes,鈥� Martin says.

While advanced interventions such as gene editing may be possible in the future, Martin emphasizes that habitat protection remains the most practical and effective approach.

鈥淭丑别 most effective solution is public advocacy for [protection of] the natural world,鈥� Martin says.

Funding and support for this research was provided in part by the Sea Turtle Grants Program funded from the proceeds of the Florida Sea Turtle License Plate, the Sigma Xi Grants in Aid of Research Program, the NOAA Oil Spill Supplemental Spend Plan, the Florida RESTORE Act Centers of Excellence Program administered through the Florida Institute of Oceanography and the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation.

Turtle handling conducted as part of permitted research (FL-MTP-225, FL-MTP-231, NMFS 19508, and predecessors).

This project was paid for in part with federal funding from the Department of the Treasury under the Resources and Ecosystems Sustainability, Tourist Opportunities, and Revived Economies of the Gulf Coast States Act of 2012 (RESTORE Act). The statements, findings, conclusions, and recommendations are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Department of the Treasury.

Florida鈥檚 coastlines are changing, and so are the fish that depend on them.

As rising temperatures push tropical species northward and mangrove habitats expand into areas historically dominated by salt marshes, scientists are racing to understand how these shifts could affect marine food webs and long-term ecosystem stability.

Meredith Pratt, a 麻豆原创 integrative and conservation biology doctoral student, is helping answer those questions. Her research on sustainable fisheries management along Florida鈥檚 east coast earned her the prestigious Florida Sea Grant/Guy Harvey Fellowship. The highly competitive award supports graduate students conducting research that informs marine conservation and fisheries management while cultivating future leaders in marine science.

Tracking a Changing Ecosystem

Pratt studies how tropicalization 鈥� the northward movement of tropical species and habitats 鈥� is altering Florida鈥檚 coastal ecosystems.

“As temperatures rise, mangroves, traditionally found in warmer, tropical regions, are expanding northward into areas historically dominated by salt marshes,鈥� she says. 鈥淭his shift is influencing the species that live there.鈥�

To understand these changes, Pratt and her team study fish communities along Florida鈥檚 east coast. One fellowship-supported project focuses on predator-prey dynamics among popular sport fish, including common snook, red drum and spotted sea trout.

“The most interesting result so far is that the same fish species are eating different things, … and that raises important questions about how continued mangrove expansion could impact the ecosystem in the long term.鈥�

鈥淭丑别 most interesting result so far is that the same fish species are eating different things depending on whether they inhabit traditional salt marshes or increasingly dominant mangrove environments,鈥� Pratt says. 鈥淲hile most species primarily feed on shrimp, common snook tend to consume more fish, and that raises important questions about how continued mangrove expansion could impact the ecosystem in the long term.鈥�

These findings were supported through lab gut analysis of fish samples collected in the field using seine nets to determine stomach contents. Because digestion can make some prey difficult to identify, Pratt also used stable isotope analysis, which provides insight into a fish鈥檚position in the food web based on chemical signatures in its tissue.

鈥淕ut content analysis shows us exactly what a fish recently ate, while stable isotopes give us a longer-term picture of its diet,鈥� she says. 鈥淭ogether, they allow us to answer questions we couldn鈥檛 with just one method alone.鈥�

Guiding Future Fisheries Management

The research is both environmentally and economically important to Florida. As one of the world鈥檚 premier fishing destinations, the state depends on healthy coastal ecosystems and fish populations to support its recreational and commercial fisheries.

鈥淢any of the fish we rely on start in estuaries and coastal environments,鈥� Pratt says. 鈥淭丑别y grow in protected areas like mangroves and salt marshes before moving offshore. If we don鈥檛 understand how those habitats are changing, we can鈥檛 effectively manage the fisheries that depend on them.鈥�

Connecting Science and Community

Pratt is also expanding the impact of her research beyond the lab. Through her National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Margaret A. Davidson Graduate Fellowship, she launched the Guana Tolomato Matanzas (GTM) Fisheries Monitoring Program at the GTM National Estuarine Research Reserve.

“Getting people involved and helping them understand the importance of this work makes a big difference.”

The volunteer-driven initiative trains community members to collect fisheries data at designated sites, including species identification, abundance and size measurements. With nearly 20 volunteers participating, the program provides valuable long-term data while increasing public involvement in scientific research.

鈥淚t鈥檚 been one of the most rewarding parts of my Ph.D.,鈥� Pratt says. 鈥淕etting people involved and helping them understand the importance of this work makes a big difference.鈥�

A Full Circle Moment

For Pratt, earning the Florida Sea Grant/Guy Harvey Fellowship was a full-circle moment. As an undergraduate, she completed many of her classes and research experiences at the Guy Harvey Oceanographic Center at Nova Southeastern University. Now, funding from Florida Sea Grant and the Guy Harvey Foundation is helping advance her research while providing professional development opportunities in science communication.

鈥淭his fellowship not only supports my research but also allows me to connect with other scientists, stakeholders and the public,鈥� she says. 鈥淪haring our findings and contributing to science communication is a really meaningful part of the experience.鈥�

Looking ahead, Pratt hopes her work will support more informed decision-making around fisheries management and conservation.

鈥淐onservation requires research and education working together,鈥� she says. 鈥淚f we can understand what鈥檚 happening and communicate that effectively, we can make better decisions to protect these ecosystems for future generations.鈥�

To advance knowledge in this area, 麻豆原创 Assistant Professor of Biology , collaborated with international researchers through the Antscan, a global initiave聽led by the Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology (OIST) and Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), with contributions from universities and museums.

The effort has led to a Nature Methods publication and created a freely available, morphological database of over 2,000 ant specimens representing nearly 800 species.

鈥淎nts are important to study because they are ubiquitous, abundant and highly varied, ecologically dominant, and some species practice agriculture, facing challenges similar to human agriculture, such as crop pests,鈥� says Sosa-Calvo, who began researching insect diversity at the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History and the University of Maryland.

Using a fast and powerful X-ray scanning technique, researchers created phenotypically accurate 3D models, providing a detailed look at both ants鈥� external and internal anatomy that can benefit a wide range of fields.

鈥淭丑别re is strong potential for more ant species to be聽added to Antscan and that other small insect or invertebrate groups create similar repositories of phenotypic data to advance our understanding of biological morphology,鈥� Sosa-Calvo says.

Closing the Gap Between Genetic and Morphological Data

Standard imaging tools used to photograph specimens, like high-resolution cameras, can capture the external morphology of ants from multiple angles, and micro-CT scanning can capture the internal morphology like organs and muscle tissue. However, these methods are time-consuming and limit how many specimens can be studied.

The Antscan initiative is filling this gap of available data by providing a library of morphologically accurate 3D models of ant anatomy. To solve the throughput bottleneck, the team of researchers is using high-throughput X-ray micro-CT scanning powered by a synchrotron particle accelerator.

鈥淭丑别 synchrotron particle accelerator produces much higher intensity light beams, resulting in images with higher contrast and faster processing times than a normal micro-CT scanner,鈥� Sosa-Calvo says. 鈥淚t takes about 3,000 images per specimen in a short period of time. So instead of taking most of the day to scan a single specimen, researchers can scan a single ant in聽about a minute or so.鈥�

Once the 2D images are captured, they are reconstructed into a 3D tomogram of the specimen, allowing researchers to see fine details from the exoskeleton to internal structures like the nervous system.

Why This Tech Matters for Biodiversity Research

By streamlining the process of scanning smaller specimens and making the 3D models publicly available, the Antscan initiative has opened the door for researchers to study morphology at a scale previously only possible for genetic data, helping morphological research catch up with its molecular counterpart.

It has also helped document the presence of characteristics previously thought to occur in only a single species.

鈥淎 few years ago, we discovered that fungus-farming ants鈥攁聽group of ants that grow fungus for food and are the subject of Sosa-Calvo’s聽research at 麻豆原创鈥攈ave biomineralized armor that protects them聽like the shell of marine crustaceans and mollusks,鈥� he says. 鈥淲ith the scans performed in this project, we now know that other species, within fungus-farming ants also have this armor, which appears to be a unique feature among ants.鈥�

Applications in Art and Media

Scientists aren鈥檛 the only group that benefits from this extensive library. Since the files are open to the public, Sosa-Calvo says artists are using them to better understand and animate natural ant movement and is a valuable tool for education by engaging students.

He adds that this proven method of collecting morphological data could encourage researchers to generate similar databases, including other Hymenopteran groups, such as聽wasps andbees, as well as other insect groups like beetles, and other invertebrates.

Sosa-Calvo鈥檚 work contributed expertise on insect diversity, particularly within the order Hymenoptera, which includes ants, bees, and wasps. His research focuses on fungus-farming ants, a group known for their highly organized, cooperative colonies and unique agricultural behavior, or fungiculture.

This research was supported by the U.S. National Science Foundation (DEB-1927161).

Researchers and students in the Department of Biology within 麻豆原创鈥檚 College of Sciences, including the Sosa-Calvo Ant Lab, have contributed to the Antscan initiative.

Now, a new study published in the American Ornithological Society鈥檚 Ornithological Applications journal details how researchers from 麻豆原创鈥檚 and colleagues analyzed the genetic variability, population structure and viable conservation strategies for Florida鈥檚 American flamingo.

鈥淎s a native Floridian who grew up in Tallahassee, Florida, I was fascinated and a little surprised to see the flamingo as a prominent state icon, yet I had never seen one in the wild,鈥� says Jessica Folsom 鈥�23MS, who led the study while earning her master鈥檚 degree in biology at 麻豆原创.

The Flamingo’s Lost History

Flamingos were nearly extirpated in Florida due to hunting and habitat loss. While later sightings suggested possible natural recolonization, many of the birds were thought to be escapees from zoos or other captive populations rather than signs of a true restoration.

Eric Hoffman, professor and chair of 麻豆原创鈥檚 Department of Biology and a co-author of the study, says the project revealed the depth of what was lost.

鈥淏efore this project, I wasn鈥檛 aware of the historical distribution or how common these birds were in Florida 100 to 150 years ago,鈥� Hoffman says.

An Unlikely Founding Population

Although flamingo populations remain large in regions near Florida, including The Bahamas, Cuba and Mexico, Florida’s first wave of birds originated in an unconventional setting.

鈥淚n the 1920s, the owner of a horse racetrack in Hialeah released roughly 20 flamingos, likely sourced from The Bahamas, as a marketing strategy to boost attendance and betting,鈥� Hoffman says. 鈥淭丑别 birds thrived in the wetland habitat at the track鈥檚 center, forming the founding population for many Florida zoo-held flocks, including Zoo Miami鈥檚.鈥�

Signs Florida Can Still Support Flamingos

In recent years, researchers say that flamingos generally fly into Florida from neighboring regions or arrive after hurricanes. Some flocks remain for months 鈥� evidence that Florida鈥檚 wetlands can support them 鈥� however, establishing a long-term breeding population remains a primary challenge.

鈥淭丑别se returning flocks have given us an opportunity to collect contemporary and historical samples to address questions about their genetics and population structure 鈥� a central focus of my lab,鈥� Hoffman says.

What the Genetics Reveal

Folsom, who conducted the research in Hoffman鈥檚 lab as a graduate student and now works as a biologist for the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, says populations that undergo extirpation or steep decline often face consequences such as reduced genetic variability, loss of unique local adaptations or alleles, and, in severe cases, a greater risk of inbreeding.

鈥淚n Florida, hunting for feathers could have created those conditions,鈥� Folsom says. 鈥淗owever, in our study, we found insignificant levels of inbreeding, little loss of genetic variability and minimal differentiation between Florida birds, the birds in Florida zoos, and other populations in the Caribbean and parts of South America.鈥�

The study included 188 flamingos spanning seven contemporary wild populations 鈥� from Cuba, The Bahamas, Bonaire, the Yucat谩n Peninsula, Mississippi, the Gal谩pagos Islands and Florida 鈥� as well as managed flocks, or ex-situ, housed in Zoo Miami and Hialeah Park. It also included five historical populations from Cuba, The Bahamas, Mexico, Florida and the Gal谩pagos Islands.

Because wild Florida specimens are limited, the team used other Caribbean wild populations as genetic proxies. Using whole genome sequencing across more than two million loci 鈥� the fixed positions of genes on a chromosome 鈥� the team analyzed data using bioinformatics software on 麻豆原创鈥檚 high-performance computing cluster, Stokes.

鈥淥ne of our most surprising findings was that modern flamingos showed significant genetic variability compared to historical populations,鈥� Folsom says. 鈥淐aptive populations showed the greatest genetic variability and minimal inbreeding, meaning they could be strong candidates for reintroduction. Genetic similarities also indicate flamingos from other regions could adapt well to Florida, with limited risk of outbreeding depression.鈥�

Researchers emphasize that reintroduction must be paired with policy change.

鈥淔or more than a century, there were almost no conservation measures for flamingos in the U.S.,鈥� says Steven Whitfield, director of Terrestrial and Wetlands Conservation at the Audubon Nature Institute and a co-author of the study. 鈥淭hat鈥檚 partly because flamingos were long considered a non-native species to Florida. With our work, we want to show they have always belonged here and there鈥檚 a scientific basis to support their recovery.鈥�

Why Policy Matters as Much as Habitat

A petition to classify the birds as threatened was filed with the state, Whitfield says, but the proposal did not advance, stating that flamingos don鈥檛 warrant inclusion on the threatened species list. Some officials have cited existing protections, such as Everglades National Park, as sufficient. Researchers disagree, saying habitat protections alone cannot ensure the species鈥� survival or population restoration.

鈥淭his study provides the evidence needed to prove that birds raised by zoos are a viable genetic match, opening the opportunity for reintroduction from zoo populations,鈥� Whitfield says.

Meanwhile, public momentum is strengthening legislative interest.

鈥淭丑别re is sustained statewide support for naming the flamingo Florida鈥檚 official state bird, and bills are now under review in both the Florida House and Senate,鈥� Folsom says. 鈥淭丑别y鈥檙e often the first image that comes to mind when you think of Florida, and that recognition drives ecotourism and public enthusiasm, which also supports broader wetland conservation efforts.鈥�

Successful recovery efforts in other regions point to promising intervention strategies.

鈥淎rtificial nest mounds can encourage breeding, and decoy flamingos have been used to signal an established flock, helping attract passing birds,鈥� Folsom says. 鈥淏oth tactics have shown success in human care and select wild settings.鈥�

A Path Forward for Restoration

While the long-term outlook for flamingos is good, the small numbers in Florida are not enough for the species to recover. Moreover, habitat destruction, pollution and warming temperatures add to the challenges they face.

鈥淣atural recovery of the flamingo is unlikely in Florida without intervention,鈥� Whitfield says. 鈥淏ut our study shifts that conversation. We can now confidently say ex-situ flamingos are genetically compatible with wild populations, which opens possibilities for a future release program, even though logistical hurdles remain.鈥�

For the researchers, the study has not only demonstrated how genetics can inform conservation but also provided an opportunity to raise awareness about an iconic species that has always been native to Florida.

鈥淕rowing up in Florida, it鈥檚 impossible not to appreciate its biodiversity,鈥� Folsom says. 鈥淲orking on this project with passionate colleagues like Eric and Steven has been incredibly rewarding, helping clarify the flamingos鈥� history in Florida and the value of protecting and reintroducing them.鈥�

In a recent study published in Royal Society Open Science, researchers found that warmer migratory temperatures may be disrupting their reproductive development, reducing overall fitness and increasing mortality.

Led by 麻豆原创 Professor of Biology Ken Fedorka and colleagues, the study warns that if warming weather trends continue, the monarch鈥檚 migratory phenotype could be lost in North America.

鈥淓astern and western monarch populations migrate thousands of miles to overwintering sites in Mexico and California, entering reproductive diapause, or a dormancy stage, to conserve energy and survive the journey and winter,鈥� Fedorka says. 鈥淏ut warming temperatures are activating their reproductive development earlier and causing them to drop out of migration, even in the absence of native milkweed, the crucial plant they rely on for breeding success.鈥�

Since the 1990s, the eastern monarch populations overwintering in Mexico have declined by 70 %, a drop tied to habitat loss, deforestation, tropical milkweed and Ophryocystis elektroscirrha (OE) parasite, with warming temperatures now emerging as newly identified risk in this study.

Each August, a new generation of monarchs emerges in reproductive diapause, storing fat to fuel the roughly two-month southward migration to the mountains of Mexico, just west of Mexico City. There, they cluster in trees and survive on stored fat until early spring, when they begin investing in reproductive tissues and mating.

鈥淥nly the south-migrating generation lives up to eight months,鈥� Fedorka says. 鈥淥nce they start reproducing, they live around four to five weeks, leaving the next generation to continue the cycle. Typically, four to five generations migrate north and south every year.鈥�

To conduct the study, researchers simulated warm and cold migratory temperatures with monarchs to measure survival, body condition, reproductive development and parasite load.

鈥淲e found that during the migration phase, warm temperatures increased male mortality and reduced fitness, while females ended diapause early, developed eggs and even laid them in the absence of milkweed,鈥� Fedorka says. 鈥淏oth sexes also mated more under warm conditions.鈥�

This pattern can create issues for survival of the offspring. During the overwintering phase, Fedorka and his team found that monarchs exposed to warm migration conditions faced higher mortality, with females reproducing early and parasite-heavy butterflies most likely to die. More notably, their study points at the effect of warming temperatures in shifting the delicate cycle of monarch鈥檚 reproductive process.

鈥淣ormally, monarchs begin reproduction in spring after surviving winter diapause when native milkweed re-emerges,鈥� Fedorka says. 鈥淢onarchs rely on milkweed for reproduction, with females laying eggs on the plant and caterpillars feeding exclusively on its leaves. However, if warmer temperatures cause monarchs to drop out of migration earlier and begin mating and laying eggs before milkweed is available, their offspring will not have a food source, leading to reproductive failure.鈥�

Milkweed is central to the conservation debate. Monarchs rely on milkweed for reproduction, but non-native tropical milkweed, 聽a widely sold ornamental flower in the U.S. , may be complicating efforts.

鈥淚n the conservation world, tropical milkweed is controversial,鈥� Ferdorka says. 鈥淪ome argue it could support monarchs as a warming climate force more winter breeding. Others warn it can lure monarchs out of migration and harbor high levels of OE, a parasite that weakens their fitness.鈥�

The study鈥檚 authors caution planting tropical milkweed widely but note it could play a role in conservation if carefully managed.

鈥淭o date, planting native milkweed and minimizing tropical milkweed seems reasonable,鈥� Fedorka says. 鈥淗owever, my data and David James鈥� observations during the 2020 California monarch crash, suggest that unusually warm migratory temperatures may present the biggest risk, triggering migratory failure.鈥�

In the fall of 2020, California鈥檚 western monarch population collapsed, with fewer than 2,000 migrant butterflies recorded at overwintering sites compared to the millions that once migrated there. Record heat likely disrupted diapause, though that same December, people documented a record high number of breeding adults, eggs and larvae on milkweeds, suggesting a winter breeding switch. The following year, the overwintering population rebounded, with about 240,000 monarchs believed to have been descendants from the winter breeders.

鈥淥ne of the current puzzles surrounding monarchs is how such low overwintering populations can give rise to such robust summer breeding populations,鈥� Fedorka says. 鈥淥ur data show that monarchs failing to reach overwintering sites may not be dying, as generally expected. Instead, they may become reproductive, and if successful, their offspring could re-migrate northward to sustain strong summer populations. That鈥檚 something we need to consider when developing conservation strategies.鈥�

Fedorka added that if the climate continues to warm, more monarchs may drop out migration and attempt reproduction sooner and if tropical milkweed is banned, they would face reproductive failure.

鈥淚f we adapt conservation efforts and plant tropical milkweed along the southern range of the migration route, it could help retain migration dropouts and support the next generation,鈥� Fedorka says.

While this study highlights warming climate as a major driver of the monarch overwintering population decline, Fedorka emphasized the need for more data.

鈥淲e need to be cautious with our conservation efforts and focus on gathering more data about our changing environment,鈥� he says. 鈥淭his will be crucial moving forward to conserve this iconic species.鈥�

Citizen scientists remain a critical part of that effort.

鈥淭housands of people across the U.S. track monarchs and milkweed from their backyards or travels, providing data no single research team could gather alone,鈥� Fedorka says. 鈥淭丑别se passionate citizen scientists are crucial to monarch conservation.鈥�

Looking ahead, Fedorka and his team are building on this research to study how temperature alone may drive diapause disruptions.

鈥淚鈥檝e always been fascinated by the quirks of nature and asking questions,鈥� he says. 鈥淚 see it as a giant puzzle to be solved, and the real joy comes from chipping away at the mystery and monarch migration is one of them.鈥�

Led by 麻豆原创 Professor of Biology and developed by undergraduate students, the new game blends research with interactive learning.

鈥淢y work on parasitic wasps and their symbiotic viruses forms the foundation for the game and other outreach efforts designed to engage the public with biology in a fun and accessible way,鈥� Sharanowski says.

The game was created by computer science senior students as part of their capstone project under the supervision of Associate Lecturer of Computer Science Matthew Gerber, with Sharanowski providing the concept. It represents the second phase of development, with an earlier senior group of students building the original concept and the second group advancing it into a fully playable desktop version.

鈥淭丑别 students coded, designed and refined the game, which was initially envisioned as a virtual reality experience but shifted to a desktop game 聽due to delays from the COVID-19 pandemic,鈥� Sharanowski says.

In the game, players take on the role of scientists tasked with protecting a national park by designing custom wasps to control invasive pests.

鈥淭丑别 goal as a scientist is to save the park by releasing specially designed wasps with beneficial features like paralytic venom, long ovipositors or even mind control, that make them more effective at targeting host species such as caterpillars, beetles and aphids,鈥� she says.

Along the way, players encounter educational blurbs that explain these traits and reinforce the idea that not all wasps sting and many are actually beneficial to humans and ecosystems.

鈥淭丑别se wasps can be endoparasitic, developing inside their host, or ectoparasitic, developing outside the host,鈥� Sharanowski says. 鈥淵ou can find them all around the world, including in our backyards, and they serve an important role in nature as natural agents of pest control, thereby reducing the need for pesticides.鈥�

The project was funded through the U.S. National Science Foundation鈥檚 (NSF) Rules of Life Initiative, which brings together multiple NSF divisions to address the fundamental questions about how living systems function and evolve.

According to Sharanowski, parasitic wasps are one of the most varied lineages on Earth, with more species than all vertebrates combined.

鈥淔or every insect that鈥檚 out there, there鈥檚 likely one or more parasitic wasps that attack it,鈥� she says.

Her research explores the unique symbiosis between wasps and viruses.

鈥淥ver time, some viruses have become integrated into the genomes of certain parasitic wasps, effectively making the virus and wasp a single organism,鈥� Sharanowski says. 鈥淭丑别 virus no longer replicates independently 鈥� its reproduction is tied to the wasp鈥檚. When a female wasp lays an egg inside a host, the virions enter the host and activate viral genes that manipulate the host鈥檚 immune system and behavior, benefiting the developing wasp.鈥�

This wasp-virus relationship has evolved multiple times and remains a central focus of her research.

As a first-generation college graduate, Sharanowski says this project has been a way to share her passion for entomology and science, as well as to provide educational opportunities for people to learn about wasps in a fun way.

鈥淥ne of my core values as an educator is to make science engaging,鈥� she says. 鈥淚 enjoy doing campus and community outreach to show how fascinating these insects are, and I believe this game does that.鈥�

She also highlighted 麻豆原创鈥檚 Collection of Arthropods, commonly known as the , as a public resource preserving and showcasing the biodiversity of insects in Central Florida.

Looking ahead, Sharanowski says a third group of students is currently working on a mobile version of the game, expected to launch later this year.

鈥淭丑别re is so much beauty out there, and I want people to see how fascinating bugs are and the important role they play in ecosystems,鈥� she says.

The move raised concerns about harmful mutations and genetic swamping 鈥� or loss of unique traits. However, a recent study co-authored by 麻豆原创 Assistant Professor of Biology and Genomics and Bioinformatics聽faculty cluster member Robert Fitak, found that since the introduction, genetic variation has significantly improved; unique traits have been retained; and harmful mutations, while still present, are largely masked by the restored genetic variation.

Findings from the study, published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences and led by UCLA researcher Diana Aguilar-G贸mez with colleagues, suggest that this rescue model could guide future conservation efforts for other endangered species facing similar threats.

In the 1990s, fewer than 30 Florida panthers remained in the wild. Habitat loss, isolation and unregulated hunting drove the species to their record-low numbers. The steep decline led to inbreeding, causing developmental, reproductive and immunological impairments that spelled a devastating future for the species.

鈥淚f the panthers had continued inbreeding, the population would have been driven to extinction,鈥� Fitak says. 鈥淭丑别 only way to recover them was to restore the genetic variation they had lost. 鈥�

While the introduction helped the population rebound to between 120 to 230 individuals, according to the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, researchers wanted to know if the species鈥� genetic health improved and if their genetic ancestry was being replaced.

鈥淢y colleagues sequenced the entire genome of 29 post-rescue Florida panthers and combined it with genomes generated from my group and others to create a larger genomic analysis,鈥� Fitak says.

The study found mixed Florida-Texas ancestry, with 24% to 61% Texas ancestry, indicating increased genetic variation measured by heterozygosity 鈥� a marker of how much genetic variation individuals carry.

It also found no evidence of genetic swamping 鈥� when genes from one population, such as Texas pumas, overwhelm and dilute the genetic makeup of another, such as Florida panthers. The panthers with mixed ancestry retained on average 59% to 80% Florida ancestry. Over time, Florida ancestry even increased, alleviating fears that the Texas genes would dominate the population鈥檚 unique traits.

鈥淥ne of the risks of introducing Texas pumas was the loss of traits that make Florida panthers unique, but that was not the case,鈥� Fitak says. 鈥淭丑别ir DNA was still intact and had spread to the individuals we studied. Post-rescue generations were genetically, physiologically and morphologically the same as pre-rescue Florida panthers.鈥�

Moreover, post-rescue panthers carried fewer harmful mutations or deleterious variants, which were not removed but largely masked by the additional genetic variation from Texas pumas.

鈥淎nother fear was the possibility of introducing more harmful mutations that would worsen an already vulnerable population, but the opposite happened,鈥� Fitak says. 鈥淏ringing in Texas pumas helped offset negative mutations and improved the population鈥檚 overall health.鈥�

While the findings have been largely positive, researchers remain cautiously optimistic about the long-term results.

鈥淚t鈥檚 clear that without the genetic rescue 30 years ago, we probably wouldn鈥檛 have a Florida panther today,鈥� Fitak says. 鈥淭hat鈥檚 why ongoing monitoring is critical. If their numbers drop and inbreeding rises again, we need to act quickly before facing the same problem.鈥�

He adds that the study underscores the importance of building on research data collected over time.

鈥淭丑别 project was a major collaboration led by several scientists and relied heavily on data gathered by multiple groups in previous studies,鈥� Fitak says. 鈥淢aking such data publicly available is crucial for advancing future research.鈥�

On the broader significance, he says that understanding what worked for Florida panthers could help improve outcomes for other species facing similar declines.

鈥淭his kind of intervention will likely become more common as more iconic megafauna in the country and around the world decline,鈥� Fitak says. 鈥淪tudying its effects in Florida panthers helps us refine the approach and make it more effective for future conservation efforts.鈥�

Aside from the genetic challenges, the Florida panther is also facing another major threat: habitat loss and degradation.

鈥淐ontinued development in Florida is eating away at the spaces panthers need for survival.鈥� Fitak says. 鈥淒evelopment also indirectly impacts water quality and displaces the prey they rely on for food.鈥�

While genetic restoration may have given Florida panthers a second chance, Fitak stresses that monitoring and habitat protection remain critical for their survival. Beyond safeguarding a single species, the effort has ripple effects across an entire ecosystem and holds significance for Floridians who view the panther as the state鈥檚 icon.

鈥淔lorida panthers are a symbol of the state鈥檚 wild heritage,鈥� Fitak says. 鈥淧rotecting this top predator isn鈥檛 just about saving one animal 鈥� it鈥檚 about preserving the health of an entire ecosystem for future generations.鈥�

Florida panther samples were collected using funding from the Florida Panther Research and Management Trust Fund.

Researcher Credentials:
Fitak is an assistant professor in 麻豆原创鈥檚 Department of Biology in the College of Sciences. He received his doctorate in genetics from the University of Arizona and his bachelor鈥檚 in molecular genetics from The Ohio State University. Before joining 麻豆原创 in 2019, he worked as a postdoctoral researcher at the Institute for Population Genetics in Vienna, Austria, and at Duke University. He is a member of 麻豆原创鈥檚 Genomics and Bioinformatics research cluster.

Name: Carla Perscky
Major: Master鈥檚 in biology

Why are you interested in this research?
When I learned that seagrass provides ecosystem services like mitigating shoreline erosion, improving water quality, cycling nutrients, sequestering carbon dioxide, and providing nursery and habitat for commercially and recreationally important species I realized that I wanted to contribute to the long-term conservation of these ecosystems for future generations.

Are you a faculty member or student conducting research at 麻豆原创? We want to hear from you!聽

How did you get started in research at 麻豆原创?
My research journey began under the mentorship of Dr. Linda Walters at the Coastal and Estuarine Ecology Lab through a former U.S. National Science Foundation Research Experience for Undergraduates (REU) scholarship. This program was pivotal in launching my career as an early scientist. Without the REU it would have been incredibly difficult to break into STEM or pursue graduate school, especially as a U.S. Navy veteran who took a nontraditional path to higher education. Dr. Walters continues to serve as my mentor throughout my master鈥檚 degree in biology.

Who inspires you and how?
I am inspired by Claudia Sheinbaum, the newly elected president of Mexico. As a scientist, and now national leader, she represents the kind of intersection I strive for, where science informs public policy, and leadership is rooted in evidence and sustainability. Her journey gives me hope that [researchers] with strong STEM backgrounds can make lasting impact not only in the labs and classrooms, but in the world stage.

How does 麻豆原创 empower you to do your research?
麻豆原创 has given me access to an amazing network of scientists and field opportunities.

Why is this research important?
Seagrasses are essential to healthy ecosystems and livelihoods. However, these coastal plants are experiencing global declines, especially under anthropogenic stressors like eutrophication, which occurs when nutrients that can lead to excessive plant growth and pollution. My research is about future-proofing our conservation approach to help these critical ecosystems and the people who depend on them thrive in a changing environment.

Hosted by the Brevard County Parks and Recreation Department鈥檚 Environmentally Endangered Lands (EEL) Program, in cooperation with the Sea Turtle Conservancy, the ceremony took place in the sanctuary鈥檚 visitor center and featured the unveiling of a new roadside sign bearing Ehrhart鈥檚 name, followed by a reception celebrating his life鈥檚 work and lasting impact on marine wildlife and habitat conservation.

Surrounded by the coastal landscapes overlooking the sandy beaches of Melbourne, Florida, Ehrhart鈥檚 family, friends, former students, local officials and community members gathered to pay tribute and celebrate his enduring legacy.

Raymond Mojica Jr., land management superintendent for the EEL program, opened the ceremony describing Ehrhart as a true ecologist whose extensive research was pivotal to establishing of the ACNWR and the newly renamed Doc Ehrhart Sanctuary.

鈥淓hrhart was a full-fledged ecologist and the decision to honor him was made so that people could learn about his life and contributions over the years,鈥� Mojica says. 鈥淗is work gathering long-term data sets on sea turtle ecology is rare in the natural history world 鈥� and that’s how good decisions are made. Anyone can take a single snapshot of what plants and animals are in place, but to do that over the long term is rare and should be celebrated.鈥�

For more than 50 years, Ehrhart advanced scientific understanding of sea turtle ecology and the coastal ecosystems of Brevard County. His research helped secure permanent nesting grounds along the refuge, now recognized as one of the most important nesting sites for loggerhead sea turtles in the Western Hemisphere and for threatened green sea turtles in North America.

One of Ehrhart鈥檚 most significant conservation successes, made possible through the data he gathered, was helping the green sea turtle populations recover.

鈥淭丑别 recovery of green turtle nesting in this refuge is one of those rare conservation stories,鈥� Mojica says. 鈥淲hen these surveys first started, they were only finding a few dozen nests a year. For various reasons, the numbers were low. Now, we鈥檙e seeing more than 20,000 nests a year. In 40 years, the population has recovered significantly and that鈥檚 something worth honoring and sharing with the public.鈥�

Blair Witherington, a research scientist with Inwater Research Group and a former student of Ehrhart, served as the event鈥檚 emcee. He discussed Ehrhart鈥檚 research and his influence on others.

“Today, we鈥檙e honoring an influential man. He mentored so many of us and inspired countless others who never met him,鈥� Witherington says. 鈥淭his refuge, and what it represents today, is the result of his work and dedication to stewardship.”

The sanctuary鈥檚 visitor center showcased educational exhibits on sea turtle ecology and coastal ecosystems, along with a display of his memorabilia prepared for the day of the event.

Early in Ehrhart鈥檚 career, the importance of this nesting beach wasn鈥檛 fully understood. But after years of diligent surveying by Ehrhart and his students, its value and the critical need to preserve it became clear.

鈥淒ay after day, year after year, Ehrhart and his students ran along the beach at Archie Carr, tallying nesting turtles,鈥� Witherington says. 鈥淥ver time, those numbers revealed just how extraordinary this site is. It鈥檚 the Mount Everest of sea turtle nesting beaches 鈥� and we only know that because of diligent, long-term data collection that may seem mundane but, cumulatively, is absolutely instrumental for conservation efforts.鈥�

Ehrhart鈥檚 passion extended beyond sea turtles. He was also deeply interested in small mammals and dedicated to sharing his love of wildlife with others.

鈥淒oc firmly believed people care about what they understand,鈥� says Ashley Ehrhart, his daughter, who also spoke at the ceremony. 鈥淗e brought school kids, college students and political leaders to see and experience the sea turtles and wildlife here. He inspired people to protect natural spaces and species 鈥� and some even went on to work in conservation and became his colleagues.鈥�

An important part of Ehrhart鈥檚 legacy, the sea turtle nesting surveys, continues under the supervision of , professor of biology at 麻豆原创 and director of the .

鈥淓hrhart would have been thrilled with this honor. He loved the barrier island deeply. While he ended his career as a sea turtle biologist, he began studying small mammals 鈥� so he always saw the bigger picture beyond just the beach,鈥� Mansfield says. 鈥淚’m excited to share the connection between Doc, our lab, and this coastal landscape with future graduate students and interns. I hope it inspires the next generation of conservation biologists and shows that conservation efforts can succeed.鈥�

The sanctuary that now bears his name is a tribute to Ehrhart鈥檚 impact and Witherington shares that it will inspire future generations to connect with this landscape he helped protect.

鈥淚鈥檓 always eager to tell Doc Ehrhart鈥檚 story, not just to honor his memory, but because it shows how one person can shape history and this place,鈥� Witherington says.

These findings challenge existing hypotheses and provide important data for assessing risks from human activity and informing conservation efforts.

The study, funded largely in part by Florida RESTORE Act Centers of Excellence Program, was published this week in the journal Proceedings of the Royal Society B, representing the largest satellite tracking dataset of wild-caught juvenile sea turtle behavior from the Gulf of Mexico during this life stage, spanning from 2011 to 2022.

鈥淥ne of the main findings is where these sea turtles are and where they go in this life stage because we haven鈥檛 known much about it,鈥� says 鈥�22笔丑顿, who led the study alongside Nathan Putman and . Phillips says understanding these movement patterns among juvenile sea turtles will help guide conservation efforts to protect critical habitats for these species.

After hatching, sea turtles are known to leave their nests on land and enter the ocean where they spend their early years. This shift from terrestrial to oceanic habitat marks a critical transition in their life cycle to a life stage that has been understudied.

According to Mansfield, co-author of the study, professor of biology at 麻豆原创, and director of the 麻豆原创 Marine Turtle Research Group, we are still learning about this life stage and it鈥檚 more complex than assumed.

鈥淲e don’t know what they’re eating, about their health, if and when they associate with floating algae called sargassum, which provides some protection,鈥� Mansfield says.

The team of researchers tagged 131 juvenile sea turtles 鈥� 94 green turtles, 28 Kemp鈥檚 ridleys, five loggerheads, and four hawksbills 鈥� and tracked their movements using satellite-equipped, solar-powered platform transmitter terminals. These movements were compared with those of oceanographic surface drifters, floating objects used to study how sea turtle movements are influenced by ocean currents.

Researchers believe juvenile sea turtles swim offshore as an adaptive behavior to avoid predators such as birds, sharks and other fish, which are more abundant near the shoreline. Their small size makes them particularly vulnerable, so offshore waters can provide a safer refuge.

鈥淥ne of the longstanding assumptions, is that juvenile sea turtles stay far offshore. Researchers call this the 鈥榦ceanic life stage,鈥� which means off the continental shelf in waters deeper than 200 meters,鈥� Phillips says. 鈥淗owever, what we found was that the turtles in this life stage are crossing over the continental shelf into neritic zones a lot more than we expected.鈥�

A continental shelf is the gently sloping, shallow underwater area that extends between the shoreline and the continental slope, where the seabed drops steeply into the deep ocean at the shelf break. This shelf includes the neritic zone, which is the part of the ocean closest to the coast, characterized by nutrient-rich waters and a high concentration of marine life.

Phillips says the sea turtles were found crossing over to shallower waters and closer to shore, but it did not appear that they were transitioning to their next life stage, where they typically move to shallow habitats and feed off the bottom. Instead, the turtles seemed to approach the shore, then turned to avoid it.

鈥淭hat was interesting because we had these passive drifters that we released with them and many of them washed up shore and none of the turtles did,鈥� Phillips says.

She adds that if the turtles don’t behave like passive particles drifting with the currents and can actively swim and control their position, then existing movement models could consider both factors to correct errors in projections.

Existing hypotheses about the early life stage of most sea turtle species suggested they live exclusively in oceanic environments, drift passively with ocean currents and typically do not return to their previous habitat once they transitioned to a new one. However, these assumptions lack research into actual movement behavior.

鈥淗istorically, all our information about this young life stage has been limited to opportunistic sightings of these little, hard-to-see animals from boats passing by, tracking work on hatchlings in the first 24 hours after leaving nesting beaches, or laboratory studies,鈥� Mansfield says.

Previous work also focused on the North Atlantic and on loggerheads, a species that commonly nested on the east coast of the U.S.

鈥淚 think it鈥檚 important to get data from different places and put the puzzle together to get a bigger picture of what鈥檚 going on,鈥� Phillips says. 鈥淩esearchers tracking this species were finding that they were staying offshore. But now that turtles are tracked from more places, we are finding that there are more nuances to what goes on. Loggerheads, for instance, we found stay off the continental shelf located in the west coast of Florida.鈥�

Mansfield says sea turtle tracking can be costly, labor intensive, and the technology has limitations.

鈥淚t鈥檚 really hard to follow and manually track a little turtle over time,鈥� Mansfield says. 鈥淵ou have to fuel a boat with researchers who have a strong stomach to go into the ocean. Historically, technology just wasn鈥檛 there to put a tag on a turtle and use satellites to be able to remotely track where they went. Tags were battery powered and as big as a brick.鈥�

Prior to her time at 麻豆原创, Mansfield figured out a method to safely tag and effectively track small turtles, thanks to more reliable tagging technology, which played a role in conducting this study and achieving its results. She also credits their partnership with Inwater Research Group in helping to catch and track smaller sea turtles.

This research into sea turtle movement during the 鈥渓ost years,鈥� provides data for conservationists to assess and manage risks from human activity.

鈥淭丑别 Deepwater Horizon oil spill in 2010 was a bit of the origin story of this project,鈥� Mansfield says. “If we have another oil spill, we need to know whether these animals [will be] transient through an area, stuck there due to currents, or if they鈥檒l end up somewhere else.鈥�

Data from this study is already driving conservation efforts, including a proposal for critical habitat designation under the Endangered Species Act for green sea turtles. This designation would complement earlier tracking data led by Mansfield, which established critical habitat for loggerheads 鈥� the sargassum algae nursery.

Mansfield and Phillips say if assumptions are that these animals are strictly oceanic, then they may not be protecting them completely or addressing what they need for their eventual recovery.

鈥淚f sea turtles are occurring on the continental shelf, we suggest renaming this life stage to 鈥榙ispersal stage鈥� to account for their behavior,鈥� Mansfield says. 鈥淭his is important nuance in their life history, and the new terminology reflects a better understanding of sea turtle behavior, revealing more about these lost years.鈥�

Funding information

Funding and support for this research was provided in part by the NOAA Oil Spill Supplemental Spend Plan, NOAA Southeast聽Fisheries Science Center, Florida RESTORE Act Centers of Excellence Program administered through the Florida Institute of Oceanography,聽National Fish and Wildlife Foundation, Friends of Gumbo Limbo Gordon J. Gilbert Grant, Microwave Telemetry Christiane Howey Rising聽Scholar Award, U.S. National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowships Program, 麻豆原创 Boyd Lyon Memorial Fellowship, National Research Council Research聽Associateship Program, and the 麻豆原创.

Researchers鈥� credentials

Katrina Phillips, doctoral graduate, integrative and conservation biology, 麻豆原创; postdoctoral researcher, University of Massachusetts Amherst

Katherine Mansfield, professor, Department of Biology, 麻豆原创; director, Marine Turtle Research Group; and Davis-Shine Endowed Professorship in Conservation Biology

Nathan Putman, senior scientist, LGL Ecological Research Associates